Please enable JavaScript to continue using this application. Lifelong Learning in the EU Learning is not limited to a single, specific phase in life, that of the years at school, but also happens in different contexts, over the course of a lifetime. With its strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training, ET2020, x ET2020 The follow-up to the 'education and training 2010 work programme', the strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (later known as ET2020), was adopted by the Council in May 2009. It sets out four strategic objectives for education and training in the EU, namely: making lifelong learning and mobility a reality; improving the quality and efficiency of education and training; promoting equality, social cohesion and active citizenship; and enhancing creativity and innovation (including entrepreneurship) at all levels of education and training. The ET2020 strategy also sets a number of benchmarks to achieve by 2020. the European Union supports the concept of lifelong learning by coordinating cooperation between Member States on training x Training The process of acquiring skills or types of behaviour necessary to carry out a particular job or activity. and formal, non-formal x Non-formal education Education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned by an education provider as an addition, alternative and/or complement to formal education as part of lifelong learning. It is often provided to guarantee the right of access to education for all. It caters to people of all ages, but it may be short in duration and/or low-intensity. Non-formal education is typically provided in the form of short courses, workshops or seminars. It leads mostly to qualifications that are not recognised by the relevant national or sub-national education authorities or it could lead to no qualifications at all. Nevertheless, some specific non-formal education programmes can lead to, recognised qualifications especially when their aim is to fill in the gaps in a person's formal education. , and informal education x Informal education Learning that is intentional, but less organised and less structured than non-formal learning. It includes learning activities that occur in the family, in the workplace, and in the daily life of every person, on a self-directed, family-directed or socially-directed basis. . This infographic presents a sample of the data to draw attention to some of the recurrent issues in lifelong learning. You can navigate to one of the four sections, each dedicated to a stage in lifelong learning. The sections discuss types of education x Education Any act or experience that has a formative effect on an individual's mind, character, or physical ability. In a more restricted sense, education is the formal process by which society, through schools, colleges, universities and other institutions, deliberately transmits its cultural heritage and its accumulated knowledge, values and skills to the next generation. What constitutes 'worthwhile knowledge' and how it is passed on is a political decision and subject to debate. and training and their objectives, staffing issues, financing, accessibility, participation rates, and impact. The final section looks at EU measures and specifically at the European Parliament's contribution. Some graphs provide additional data. Click on a Member State to view country specific information. Click once on a series label to sort the data. Click a second time to hide the series data. Closing the left-side pop-up will clear the country selection and start afresh. Early childhood education ISCED level 0 refers to programmes with an intentional educational component for young children before they reach compulsory school age Compulsory education ISCED levels 1-3 refers to primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education. It typically coincides with the legal age of entry to school up to the end of compulsory education. Tertiary education ISCED levels 5-8 refers to short-cycle tertiary, Bachelor's, Master's, Doctoral or equivalent levels. Adult education Refers to the entire range of formal, non-formal and informal learning activities, both general and vocational, undertaken by adults after leaving initial education and training. SECTION EU-Actions SECTION EU-Actions Early childhood education Introduction Early childhood education and care (ECEC) includes all organised childcare and preschool education outside the family, which takes place before children reach compulsory school age, and which is regulated by a national framework. It can be based in a centre (school-like settings) or at the carer's home and depend on public or private funding. Centre-based settings can be attached to a primary x ISCED 1: Primary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to provide pupils with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy) and establish a solid foundation for learning and understanding core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, in preparation for lower secondary education. Age is typically the only entry requirement at this level. The customary or legal age of entry is usually not below five years old nor above seven years old. This level typically lasts six years, although its duration can range between four and seven years. school or be in a completely separate set-up. Some Member States organise ECEC as a single phase in unitary settings under the ministry of education (unitary). Other Member States have separate settings for children younger than three years, dividing responsibility for the different levels between authorities (split). Others still have a mixture of both unitary and split settings (mixed). Further reading Milotay, N., Early childhood education and care in family-friendly policies , EPRS, European Parliament, May 2016. Quality in Early Childhood Education and Care , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2013. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Learning objectives Most EU Member States have educational guidelines for ECEC x ISCED 0: Early Childhood Education Programmes at this level are typically designed with a holistic approach to support children's early cognitive, physical, social and emotional development. They introduce young children to organised instruction outside the family context. ISCED level 0 refers to early childhood programmes that have an intentional educational component. provision based on children's cognitive and developmental needs. The formality of these guidelines ranges from sections in a law, to practical guidance published for practitioners. Guidelines focus more often on children older than three years and address objectives, outcomes, attainment targets, content, practice of teaching, learning activities and assessment methods. Different Member States do not necessarily cover all areas in their guidelines. All EU Member States have learning objectives related to the personal, emotional, linguistic and social development of the child. You can see the list of objectives when you click on a country. Almost all cover physical and health education, artistic skills and understanding of the world. Relatively few countries introduce a second or a foreign language at this stage. In the later stages, basic literacy and numeracy are introduced to prepare children for primary x ISCED 1: Primary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to provide pupils with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy) and establish a solid foundation for learning and understanding core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, in preparation for lower secondary education. Age is typically the only entry requirement at this level. The customary or legal age of entry is usually not below five years old nor above seven years old. This level typically lasts six years, although its duration can range between four and seven years. schooling. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Educators The ratio of staff to pupils is an indication of the amount of individual attention children are likely to receive. Eurostat calculates the ratio of pupils to teachers in early childhood education x ISCED 0: Early Childhood Education Programmes at this level are typically designed with a holistic approach to support children's early cognitive, physical, social and emotional development. They introduce young children to organised instruction outside the family context. ISCED level 0 refers to early childhood programmes that have an intentional educational component. for groups of both younger and older children. However, this average may hide significant differences between areas and schools. Head teachers A report by the EU agency, Eurydice, notes that head teachers who are strong leaders are important to improving the quality of early childhood education. Head teachers are needed to ensure that all groups of children benefit from available services, create a sense of community, support professional development, and encourage teamwork. Most Member States define the qualifications of ECEC head teachers to secure the quality of services provided by the centres; transparent recruitment procedures and the possibility to replace underperforming managers are equally important. Click on a country for more information Practitioners Educational staff in unitary systems working with younger children, tend to hold qualifications of a higher level than those working with the same age group in a split system. In the first instance, the minimum qualification is often tertiary education x Tertiary education Tertiary education builds on secondary education and provides learning activities in specialised fields, at a high level of complexity. It includes academic education as well as advanced vocational or professional education. It comprises International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) levels 5-8, ranging from short-cycle tertiary education to bachelor’s or equivalent, master’s or equivalent, and doctoral or equivalent level. and in the second, upper secondary x ISCED 3: Upper secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education or provide skills relevant to employment, or both. Pupils enter this level typically between the ages of 14 and 16 years. or post-secondary non-tertiary level x ISCED 4: Post-secondary non-tertiary education Post-secondary non-tertiary education provides learning experiences that build on secondary education and prepare for the labour market or admission to tertiary courses if ISCED level 3 qualifications are not sufficient. The completion of an ISCED level 3 programme is required to enter ISCED level 4 programmes. . Most Member States require tertiary education as a minimum requirement for educational staff working in a setting with older children. For both head teachers and practitioners qualification requirements could be at upper or post-secondary level ( ISCED x ISCED The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) is a statistical framework for organising information on education maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 3 x ISCED 3: Upper secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education or provide skills relevant to employment, or both. Pupils enter this level typically between the ages of 14 and 16 years. or 4 x ISCED 4: Post-secondary non-tertiary education Post-secondary non-tertiary education provides learning experiences that build on secondary education and prepare for the labour market or admission to tertiary courses if ISCED level 3 qualifications are not sufficient. The completion of an ISCED level 3 programme is required to enter ISCED level 4 programmes. ) as well as Bachelor’s or Master’s degree level (ISCED 6 x ISCED 6: Bachelors' or equivalent level Programmes at this level, are often designed to provide participants with intermediate academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a first degree or equivalent qualification. Entry into these programmes normally requires the successful completion of an ISCED level 3 or 4 programme with access to tertiary education. Entry may depend on subject choice and/or grades achieved at ISCED levels 3 and/or 4. Additionally, it may be required to take and succeed in entry examinations. Entry or transfer into ISCED level 6 is also sometimes possible after the successful completion of ISCED level 5. or 7 x ISCED 7: Master's or equivalent level Programmes at this level, are often designed to provide participants with advanced academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a second degree or equivalent. Typically, programmes are theoretical but may include practical components. They offer access to state of the art research and/or best professional practice. These programmes are traditionally offered by universities and other tertiary educational institutions. Entry into ISCED level 7 programmes normally requires the successful completion of a bachelor's degree or another master's (ISCED level 6 or 7). In the case of long programmes that prepare for a first degree equivalent to a Master's degree, entry requires the successful completion of an ISCED level 3 or 4 programme with access to tertiary education. Entry into such programmes may depend on subject choice and/or grades achieved at ISCED levels 3 and/or 4. Additionally, it may be necessary to pass an entry examination. ). Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Financing Public sector provision predominates in early childhood education and care, especially for older children, just before primary x ISCED 1: Primary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to provide pupils with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy) and establish a solid foundation for learning and understanding core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, in preparation for lower secondary education. Age is typically the only entry requirement at this level. The customary or legal age of entry is usually not below five years old nor above seven years old. This level typically lasts six years, although its duration can range between four and seven years. school. However, the private sector is widely present whether it is publicly subsidised or self-financing. The levels of authority (local, regional or national) which are responsible for putting regulations and checks in place differ across the Member States. Local authorities often finance early childhood education x ISCED 0: Early Childhood Education Programmes at this level are typically designed with a holistic approach to support children's early cognitive, physical, social and emotional development. They introduce young children to organised instruction outside the family context. ISCED level 0 refers to early childhood programmes that have an intentional educational component. for younger children, while they share costs with the central level for older children. Eurostat publishes government expenditure on pre-primary and primary education as a share of GDP x GDP The abbreviation for Gross Domestic Product, or the value of all the goods and services produced in a country in a given period. . Click on a country for more details. Annual per capita expenditure is lower at the level of early childhood education than at other levels of education, but in most EU countries, public expenditure as a percentage of GDP has increased. On average, households contribute 14.4 % of educational expenditure at this level. This is mostly made up of tuition fees and payments for other services, such as meals, school health, and transport. Where provision is free of charge, payments for these ancillary services can still make up a considerable contribution. In most Member States, fees in public or publicly subsidised centres are regulated. Limits can be expressed as a percentage of actual costs, the minimum wage, or family income. Eastern European countries tend to have the lowest fees for children under three years. In contrast, fees are highest where provision is mostly private. Fees in the graphic, that appears when you click on any country, are expressed in PPS x PPS Purchasing power standard is an artificial currency unit which uses the ability to buy the same given volume of goods and services in all countries as a reference. . Some countries offer compensation by means of indirect subsidies, reduced fees and exemptions, which depend on needs-based criteria. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Types of provision In some Member States, early childhood education x ISCED 0: Early Childhood Education Programmes at this level are typically designed with a holistic approach to support children's early cognitive, physical, social and emotional development. They introduce young children to organised instruction outside the family context. ISCED level 0 refers to early childhood programmes that have an intentional educational component. provision is compulsory or at least guaranteed for a year or two before primary x ISCED 1: Primary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to provide pupils with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy) and establish a solid foundation for learning and understanding core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, in preparation for lower secondary education. Age is typically the only entry requirement at this level. The customary or legal age of entry is usually not below five years old nor above seven years old. This level typically lasts six years, although its duration can range between four and seven years. school starts. In half of the EU countries, centre-based education for older children is free of charge. Where this is the case, the number of hours can be limited. Member States that offer free ECEC usually do so without discrimination and this measure is particularly effective in improving access for low-income families. The EU target is a participation rate of 95 % of all children between four and the start of compulsory primary school. If you click on a country, the chart shows that in 2015, the EU average participation was 92.4 % of four-year-olds, ranging from 74 % to 100 %. On average, 15.7 % of children under three years spend more than 30 hours per week in ECEC, compared with 49.4 % of those between three and the start of compulsory primary school. ECEC participation is at its peak when children are four years old, but is very low among children under three. This can be explained in part by the split organisation in many Member States. Care for children below the age of three may also be covered by parental leave or informal arrangements such as nannies, or care provided by other family members. This may be the parents’ choice, but in some cases this is simply because they do not have access to affordable centre-based or home-based early childhood education and care. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Impact On science scores at age 15... Initially, policy makers promoted early childhood care x ISCED 0: Early Childhood Education Programmes at this level are typically designed with a holistic approach to support children's early cognitive, physical, social and emotional development. They introduce young children to organised instruction outside the family context. ISCED level 0 refers to early childhood programmes that have an intentional educational component. to increase the presence of women in the labour market. However, most centres also have an educational project, and attendance at early childhood education and care seems the most cost-effective way to improve the performance of disadvantaged students who generally do less well at school later on. PISA x PISA The programme for international student assessment (PISA) is an international survey that takes place every three years and tests the skills of 15 year old students, to evaluate school systems. indicates that 15 year olds who had attended early childhood education scored better in science tests than their peers who had not attended or who had attended for less than a year. Most of the students who attend less than one year come from disadvantaged backgrounds. The positive effect of early childhood education somewhat diminishes over time, and other variables such as socio-economic background, gender and student motivation also have an impact on scores. ... considering differences in attendance rates The charts that appear when you select a country show that despite the benefits of early childhood education, the rate of participation of young children was on average 7 % lower if parents had not received tertiary x Tertiary education Tertiary education builds on secondary education and provides learning activities in specialised fields, at a high level of complexity. It includes academic education as well as advanced vocational or professional education. It comprises International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) levels 5-8, ranging from short-cycle tertiary education to bachelor’s or equivalent, master’s or equivalent, and doctoral or equivalent level. education. The rate lowered by an average of 13 % if children came from migrant families; in some Member States the rate lowered by more than 20 %. On average, participation rates are 11.5 % lower when parental level of education, country of origin, and socio-economic status are combined. In conclusion, early childhood education does make a difference, even if it does not compensate for the impact of socio-economic status on low achievement in education by itself. On the other hand, the children who run greater risks of underachieving and who would benefit more from early childhood education are less likely to attend. In itself this compounds their initial disadvantage. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. SECTION EU-Actions Compulsory education Introduction Throughout the EU, schools provide initial education to all young persons of compulsory school age. However, while students in seven Member States follow a general core curriculum x Curriculum The content taught in schools and defined by subjects, goals, structure, and workload for students. Curricula are specified in regulations, standards set by central educational authorities or recommendations at regional level. The compulsory core curriculum includes the subjects or domains of study that must be covered by all students, while a general curriculum offers rounded rather than specialist education. In addition to the core curriculum, there can be core curriculum options - that is, subjects that schools offer compulsorily, from which students make a selection, to cover part of their compulsory curriculum. Curriculum based learning can occur on school premises or outside, but nevertheless forms part of the formal programme. in a single school, in eleven Member States, students move to a different school once they finish primary. The first system is referred to as 'single structure' and the second is known as 'common core'. In five other Member States, students need to choose between different tracks or branches during the secondary years, and another five Member States combine a single structure with a common core system or a system of differentiated branches. Whatever the organisation of compulsory schooling, transitions to the next level and differentiation into branches or specialisations are interesting, as they can reveal patterns in underachievement and the choices students make. Further reading Chircop, D., Schools of tomorrow: Learning for ever-changing times , EPRS European Parliament, 2018. Innovative schools: teaching and learning in the digital era, workshop documentation , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2015. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. School curricula School curricula encapsulate the values, knowledge and skills that educational authorities prescribe as intrinsic to initial education. A study of the Eurydice network notes that overall, instruction time increases and differences between countries in instruction time decrease as students move from primary to secondary (see map). The distribution of time spent on different subject areas (see stacked column chart) reflects the relative priority attributed to them. Member States differ in the way they make curricular decisions, but while content and goals are often established at a more central level, schools tend to have greater autonomy in deciding how to teach and assess. Click on a Member State to see the degree of autonomy on curricular matters. Further reading Chircop, D., Multilingualism and lifelong language learning , EPRS, European Parliament, September 2017. Intercultural Education in Schools , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2008. Katsarova, I., Physical education in EU schools , EPRS, European Parliament, November 2016. Learning and teaching technology options , EPRS, European Parliament, 2015. Youth education and entrepreneurship , Policy Department for structural and cohesion policies, culture and education, European Parliament, 2015 Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Teachers and head teachers Student-teacher ratios are indicative of the amount of individual attention students are likely to receive. This is relevant because Programme for International Student Assessment ( PISA x PISA The programme for international student assessment (PISA) is an international survey that takes place every three years and tests the skills of 15 year old students, to evaluate school systems. ) results draw attention to the importance of student-teacher interactions by suggesting that students express higher levels of wellbeing at school when they perceive teachers as being supportive and fair. On average, in the EU the highest levels of student-teacher ratios are found in primary and upper-secondary vocational schools. Given the influence that head teachers and teachers have on the quality of students' learning experience, their initial and ongoing professional development is subject to scrutiny. Click on a Member State for an overview of these requirements. Teachers are usually expected to complete initial teacher education, but sometimes candidates also need to sit additional exams or to undergo trial teaching-practice periods before they are admitted as fully qualified teachers. Some Member States also have arrangements for an alternative pathway into the profession (Belgium (German speaking, Flemish speaking), Germany, Denmark, Estonia, Spain Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Slovakia, Sweden, United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland). PISA analysis also infers that students achieve better results in educational systems where teachers collaborate with each other and contribute actively towards the development of their profession. Further reading Content and quality of teacher education across the European Union , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2008. Innovative Schools: Teaching and Learning in the Digital Era , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, European Parliament, 2015. Mobility of school teachers in the European Union , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2008. Teaching teachers: Primary teacher training in Europe - State of affairs and Outlook , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2014. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Financing For the most part, children of compulsory school age in the EU attend public schools (third chart). Private schools account for around a third or more of the student population in only three Member States (Belgium, Spain, Malta), but a large part of the private sector in these countries is government-dependent. Public spending on compulsory schooling as a proportion of GDP x GDP The abbreviation for Gross Domestic Product, or the value of all the goods and services produced in a country in a given period. (first chart) reflects public effort to support compulsory education compared to the strength of the economy. On average, spending on primary schools within the EU reaches 1.2 % of GDP, while that on lower secondary schools reaches 1.03 % of GDP. Comparison with total public expenditure (second chart) reveals the relative priority of compulsory education as a policy area. The EU average expenditure on primary school education is 2.5 % of public expenditure and is 2.1 % on lower secondary education x ISCED 2: Lower secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to build on the learning outcomes from ISCED level 1. Students enter ISCED level 2 typically between ages 10 and 13 (age 12 being the most common). . The level of expenditure has a real impact on schools' ability to provide quality staffing, infrastructures and other educational resources and so the distribution of resources among schools and educational districts also reflects policy priorities. Nevertheless, public spending does not meet all the costs. Families also contribute financially, at least to some extent, in the education of their children. This can entail the payment of private school fees, but more often covers some of the services and provisions provided in public schools. Policies governing the allocation of students to specific schools usually reflect sensitivities regarding parents' right to choose their children's school and policies related to the levels of social mix within schools. Click on a Member State for country specific details. Further Reading Augere-Granier, M., Reformed scheme for fruit and milk in schools , EPRS, European Parliament, March 2016. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Time spent at school Time spent learning at school relates positively to school achievement even after considering other factors, such as the quality of instruction. In effect, disadvantaged students tend to benefit even more from greater exposure to school. Students in the EU spend between 8 and 12 years attending compulsory schooling. Primary schooling x ISCED 1: Primary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to provide pupils with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy) and establish a solid foundation for learning and understanding core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, in preparation for lower secondary education. Age is typically the only entry requirement at this level. The customary or legal age of entry is usually not below five years old nor above seven years old. This level typically lasts six years, although its duration can range between four and seven years. , dedicated to the consolidation of the fundamentals, is the longest phase in most Member States, averaging 5.5 years, with a range from 4 to 7 years. The period between 2000 and 2015 saw a growing tendency for students to remain longer in formal education x Formal education The system in a country that imparts full-time education and training in an official and structured way from the primary up to tertiary and adult education. Formal education is organised by public or publicly recognised institutions, with clearly defined stages leading to formal qualifications which are recognised by national educational authorities. beyond compulsory schooling and into tertiary education x Tertiary education Tertiary education builds on secondary education and provides learning activities in specialised fields, at a high level of complexity. It includes academic education as well as advanced vocational or professional education. It comprises International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) levels 5-8, ranging from short-cycle tertiary education to bachelor’s or equivalent, master’s or equivalent, and doctoral or equivalent level. . While the average expected years of formal education for pupils and students was 16.3 years in 2000, it was calculated at 17.2 years in 2005, 17.6 years in 2010 and 17.5 years in 2015. You can check the evolution of this trend for each Member State when you click on the map. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Participation in education and training The end of secondary school x ISCED 3: Upper secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education or provide skills relevant to employment, or both. Pupils enter this level typically between the ages of 14 and 16 years. marks another transition and further differentiation. Some students cut their education short and do not necessarily integrate in the labour market ( NEETs x NEET The indicator 'young people neither in employment nor in education and training', abbreviated as 'NEET', corresponds to the percentage of the population of a given age group and sex who is not employed and not involved in further education or training. The numerator of the indicator refers to persons meeting these two conditions: they are not employed (i.e. unemployed or inactive according to the International Labour Organization definition); they have not received any education or training in the four weeks preceding the survey. The denominator is the total population of the same age group and sex, excluding the respondents who have not answered the question on 'participation in regular education and training'. ). On average, these represent 6.1 % of young people in the EU. Others finish their studies, seek and may find employment; others still choose to continue their studies. In almost all Member States, girls between 15 and 19 years old are more likely to still be in education and also less likely to be neither in education nor employed x Employed persons Persons aged 15 years and over in one of the following categories: (a) persons who during the reference week worked for at least one hour for pay, profit or gain; (b) persons who were not at work during the reference week but had a job or business from which they were temporarily absent. This definition is applicable to employees, self-employed persons and family workers. Pay includes cash payments or 'payment in kind' (payment in goods or services rather than money), irrespective of whether payment was received in the same week or not. Exceptions to the standard age group of 15 year olds and over are: 16 year olds and over in Spainand the United Kingdom; and 15 to 74 year olds in Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary and Latvia, (adapted from Eurostat). . The EU average participation in education and training is 90.8 % for girls and 89.3 % for boys, while the EU average for NEETs x NEET The indicator 'young people neither in employment nor in education and training', abbreviated as 'NEET', corresponds to the percentage of the population of a given age group and sex who is not employed and not involved in further education or training. The numerator of the indicator refers to persons meeting these two conditions: they are not employed (i.e. unemployed or inactive according to the International Labour Organization definition); they have not received any education or training in the four weeks preceding the survey. The denominator is the total population of the same age group and sex, excluding the respondents who have not answered the question on 'participation in regular education and training'. stands at 5.6 % for girls and 6.5 % for boys. However, in absolute numbers, there tend to be more boys than girls in secondary education ( lower x ISCED 2: Lower secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to build on the learning outcomes from ISCED level 1. Students enter ISCED level 2 typically between ages 10 and 13 (age 12 being the most common). and upper x ISCED 3: Upper secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education or provide skills relevant to employment, or both. Pupils enter this level typically between the ages of 14 and 16 years. ). This is due to a number of factors, such as demographics, gender differences in how quickly students progress to tertiary education, and the gender composition of students who are following 'second chance' programmes. Click on a Member State for a breakdown of gender differences in enrolment in lower and upper secondary. There is a relationship between underachievement, leaving school early and unemployment, meaning that participation rates in education and training and the percentages of NEETs x NEET The indicator 'young people neither in employment nor in education and training', abbreviated as 'NEET', corresponds to the percentage of the population of a given age group and sex who is not employed and not involved in further education or training. The numerator of the indicator refers to persons meeting these two conditions: they are not employed (i.e. unemployed or inactive according to the International Labour Organization definition); they have not received any education or training in the four weeks preceding the survey. The denominator is the total population of the same age group and sex, excluding the respondents who have not answered the question on 'participation in regular education and training'. are two sides of a complex phenomenon. Differences between Member States on the proportions of students in lower or upper secondary largely reflect differences in the length of each phase of secondary schooling. Further reading Lecerf, Marie, NEETs who are they? Being young and not in employment, education or training today , EPRS, European Parliament, 2017. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Student resilience PISA x PISA The programme for international student assessment (PISA) is an international survey that takes place every three years and tests the skills of 15 year old students, to evaluate school systems. is one way of monitoring the performance of schooling systems. It does so by worldwide testing of 15-year-olds' ability to apply their knowledge to practical situations. Given the EU's targets to improve basic skills x Basic skills Following the source of the data being presented,basic skills is used here to refer to literacy, numeracy and digital skills. There is no international agreement on the definition of basic skills and it has been used to refer to skills related to listening, speaking, reading, writing, mathematics, information and communication technology (ICT), foreign languages, social skills, organisational skills, communication, technological culture and entrepreneurship (adapted from Eurydice). (less than 15 % of underachievement by 2020) and to widen access to higher education (more than 40 % of graduates by 2020), it is pertinent to look at the resilience of disadvantaged students, which is key to achieving both goals. Resilience x Resilience Students are classified as resilient if they are socio-economically disadvantaged in their own country (i.e. they fall in the bottom quarter of the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status in the country/economy of assessment) and they obtain top results compared to all the students who sat for the test that year, anywhere (i.e. performs in the top quarter of students among all countries/economies, after accounting for socio-economic status), (adapted from PISA/OECD). refers to the percentage of disadvantaged students who achieve high scores on the PISA test. This is used as an indication of an education systems' degree of equity, reflecting the notion that educational policies can effectively change educational outcomes. The main graphic shows the percentage of resilient students as well as variances in scores by students' native or migrant background, and their socio-economic status. The EU percentage of resilient students is 27 %. There is a variance of 18 points in favour of native students and 14 points due to socio-economic status on the science score calculated for the whole EU. The PISA 2015 report notes that while there is a link between socio-economic status and the scores achieved by students, including immigrant students, the uneven results between Member States indicate that other factors also have an impact. Equally, the high or low performance of educational systems on the PISA scale does not automatically translate into high or low resilience among socio-economically disadvantaged and immigrant students. This leads to the conclusion that resilience is also linked to how well an educational system nurtures the talents of these students. The secondary chart (click on the map to view) breaks down national scores on science, reading and maths by gender. These scores are compared to the EU average. In its 2015 report, PISA focused on science performance in discussing gender differences. It points out that while the gender gap in science scores is closing, it is still significant in some Member States, and sometimes in favour of girls. Where boys' and girls' average scores are similar, boys' individual scores are more likely to be at the top or bottom end of the range. Nevertheless, girls scoring as highly as top-scoring boys are less likely to imagine themselves going for a job that involves science. The test itself is the focus of much media attention in many Member States, but it has also drawn some criticism for elements of its methodology, for eclipsing other forms of evaluation, and for weighing too heavily on educational reforms. Further reading Chircop, D., Education and intercultural dialogue as tools against radicalisation , EPRS, European Parliament, 2015. Chircop, D., Integrating migrants and their children through education , EPRS, European Parliament, 2016. Evaluation of education at the European level , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Education and Culture, European Parliament, 2016. Inclusive education for learners with disabilities , Policy department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs, European Parliament, 2017. Katsarova, I., Integration of migrants: the education dimension , EPRS, European Parliament, 2016. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Additional support Member States adopt a variety of approaches to support students at risk of underachieving or leaving the educational system early. Most commonly, these policies target socio-economic status, migrant status and disability. The most usual types of activities that are funded to offer support are the provision of additional staffing and offering more professional development to school staff. Most of the supportive actions listed in the graphic (click on Member State) seek to improve the quality of education. On the other hand, scholarships and allowances given to students or families seek to mitigate financial difficulties caused by factors outside the educational system. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. SECTION EU-Actions Tertiary education Introduction All Member States now have university programmes with three consecutive levels: Bachelor's x ISCED 6: Bachelors' or equivalent level Programmes at this level, are often designed to provide participants with intermediate academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a first degree or equivalent qualification. Entry into these programmes normally requires the successful completion of an ISCED level 3 or 4 programme with access to tertiary education. Entry may depend on subject choice and/or grades achieved at ISCED levels 3 and/or 4. Additionally, it may be required to take and succeed in entry examinations. Entry or transfer into ISCED level 6 is also sometimes possible after the successful completion of ISCED level 5. , Master's x ISCED 7: Master's or equivalent level Programmes at this level, are often designed to provide participants with advanced academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a second degree or equivalent. Typically, programmes are theoretical but may include practical components. They offer access to state of the art research and/or best professional practice. These programmes are traditionally offered by universities and other tertiary educational institutions. Entry into ISCED level 7 programmes normally requires the successful completion of a bachelor's degree or another master's (ISCED level 6 or 7). In the case of long programmes that prepare for a first degree equivalent to a Master's degree, entry requires the successful completion of an ISCED level 3 or 4 programme with access to tertiary education. Entry into such programmes may depend on subject choice and/or grades achieved at ISCED levels 3 and/or 4. Additionally, it may be necessary to pass an entry examination. and Doctorate x ISCED 8: Doctoral or equivalent level Programmes at this level are designed primarily to lead to an advanced research qualification. Programmes at this ISCED level are devoted to advanced study and original research and are typically offered only by research-oriented tertiary educational institutions such as universities. Doctoral programmes exist in both academic and professional fields. The theoretical duration of these programmes is three years full-time in most countries, although the actual time that students take to complete the programmes is typically longer. Programmes classified at ISCED level 8 may be referred to in many ways, for example: PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar terms. To compare these internationally, the term, 'doctoral or equivalent level' is used to label ISCED level 8. degrees. That this model is widely spread throughout the European Higher Education Area x Bologna Process An agreement between 48 states, including all the EU Member States, which establishes the 'European Higher Education Area', making it easier for a university to recognise partial studies or qualifications from another university within the area. This depends on an ongoing collective effort to harmonise systems. Universities and stakeholder bodies such as student, faculty and business associations, and relevant levels of government, from local to the EU, are involved in the implementation of a three tier system of university degrees - bachelor, master and doctorate - and the strengthening of quality assurance. The process also introduced units of study, known as credits, to stipulate the hours of study required for a course and learning outcomes, in order to establish equivalence. (EHEA) makes it easier for universities to recognise each other's degrees. Many Member States also have shorter programmes (Short-cycle higher education or SCHE) which usually attract students who could be discouraged by a three-year Bachelor's course. As the graphic shows, not all course levels are equally widespread. The comparison between Member States shows that Bachelor's courses are by far the most popular. However, in some Member States (Austria, France, Latvia, Malta, Slovenia, Spain), short courses are more common than in others and studies at Master's level attract more students in some other Member States (Austria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Slovakia, Sweden). Gender distribution among these levels can vary significantly. There is no agreement as to what constitutes higher professional education but an initial exploratory study identified some qualifications aligned with National Qualifications Frameworks at ISCED x ISCED The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) is a statistical framework for organising information on education maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 5 x ISCED 5: Short-cycle tertiary education Programmes at this level are often designed to provide participants with professional knowledge, skills and competencies. Typically, they have a practical orientation, are occupation-specific and prepare students for the labour market. However, these programmes may also provide a pathway to other tertiary education programmes. Entry into ISCED level 5 programmes requires the successful completion of ISCED levels 3 or 4 with access to tertiary education. and 6 x ISCED 6: Bachelors' or equivalent level Programmes at this level, are often designed to provide participants with intermediate academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a first degree or equivalent qualification. Entry into these programmes normally requires the successful completion of an ISCED level 3 or 4 programme with access to tertiary education. Entry may depend on subject choice and/or grades achieved at ISCED levels 3 and/or 4. Additionally, it may be required to take and succeed in entry examinations. Entry or transfer into ISCED level 6 is also sometimes possible after the successful completion of ISCED level 5. and to a much lesser degree at ISCED 7 x ISCED 7: Master's or equivalent level Programmes at this level, are often designed to provide participants with advanced academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a second degree or equivalent. Typically, programmes are theoretical but may include practical components. They offer access to state of the art research and/or best professional practice. These programmes are traditionally offered by universities and other tertiary educational institutions. Entry into ISCED level 7 programmes normally requires the successful completion of a bachelor's degree or another master's (ISCED level 6 or 7). In the case of long programmes that prepare for a first degree equivalent to a Master's degree, entry requires the successful completion of an ISCED level 3 or 4 programme with access to tertiary education. Entry into such programmes may depend on subject choice and/or grades achieved at ISCED levels 3 and/or 4. Additionally, it may be necessary to pass an entry examination. and 8 x ISCED 8: Doctoral or equivalent level Programmes at this level are designed primarily to lead to an advanced research qualification. Programmes at this ISCED level are devoted to advanced study and original research and are typically offered only by research-oriented tertiary educational institutions such as universities. Doctoral programmes exist in both academic and professional fields. The theoretical duration of these programmes is three years full-time in most countries, although the actual time that students take to complete the programmes is typically longer. Programmes classified at ISCED level 8 may be referred to in many ways, for example: PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar terms. To compare these internationally, the term, 'doctoral or equivalent level' is used to label ISCED level 8. . Professional qualifications covered by EHEA follow the Bologna x Bologna Process An agreement between 48 states, including all the EU Member States, which establishes the 'European Higher Education Area', making it easier for a university to recognise partial studies or qualifications from another university within the area. This depends on an ongoing collective effort to harmonise systems. Universities and stakeholder bodies such as student, faculty and business associations, and relevant levels of government, from local to the EU, are involved in the implementation of a three tier system of university degrees - bachelor, master and doctorate - and the strengthening of quality assurance. The process also introduced units of study, known as credits, to stipulate the hours of study required for a course and learning outcomes, in order to establish equivalence. cycles and are likely to be known as ‘Professional Bachelor’ or ‘Professional Master’. For each Member State, we indicate whether the initial scoping study identified such professional degrees or short cycle courses, click on the columns to view. Further reading Cesluk-Grajewski, M., Education in the European Union [What Think Tanks are thinking], EPRS, European Parliament, 2015. Katsarova, I., Higher education in the EU: Approaches, issues and trends , EPRS, European Parliament, 2015. Kraatz, S. & Spenbergt, K., New Skills Agenda for Europe: State of implementation , Policy Department for Economy and Scientific Policy, Employment and Social Affairs, European Parliament, 2017. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Tertiary courses Engineering, Business, Administration and Law are consistently among the most popular courses in all Member States, and represent 45 % of all male students and 29 % of all female students in the EU. Engineering alone attracts 25 % of all male students but only 7 % of female students. On the other hand, Business, Administration and Law attract 24 % of female students. The graphic shows that female students' choices are spread more evenly than those of male students across areas such as Health and Welfare (18 % ), Arts and Humanities (13 % ), Education (11 % ) and Social Sciences, encompassing Journalism and Information (11 % ). Click on a Member State to view details. Studies at tertiary level are quantified in credits (European Credit Transfer System or ECTS x ECTS The European credit transfer and accumulation system (ECTS) is a credit system designed to help students who want to study in different countries, as the credits can be transferred from one university to another to add up to a degree programme. This is a central tool in the Bologna Process. Credits represent the workload expressed in hours of study and learning outcomes reflected in what a student is expected to be able to understand and do. A full year of study or work equals 60 credits, which are usually broken down into several smaller components in a standard academic year. ) for the purpose of recognition by other institutions. ECTS are units which specify the required hours of study and learning outcomes. Within some Member States, courses at the same level, but in different fields, have different workloads. Most Bachelor's degree courses have a workload of 180 credits spread over three years but in some countries all Bachelor's degrees require 240 ECTS (Cyprus, Spain); in other Member States most courses require 240 ECTS (Bulgaria, Latvia, UK-Scotland); while in the Netherlands there are fewer courses requiring 240 ECTS, but they are the most popular. Click on a Member State to view typical workloads. Further reading Katsarova, I., New global interactive strategies for teaching and learning , EPRS, European Parliament, 2014. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Teaching in higher and vocational education Academic staff perform various functions, but this section focuses on their teaching role. Eurostat data on student-teacher ratios does not distinguish between the academic and the professional strands of tertiary education, so ISCED 5 x ISCED 5: Short-cycle tertiary education Programmes at this level are often designed to provide participants with professional knowledge, skills and competencies. Typically, they have a practical orientation, are occupation-specific and prepare students for the labour market. However, these programmes may also provide a pathway to other tertiary education programmes. Entry into ISCED level 5 programmes requires the successful completion of ISCED levels 3 or 4 with access to tertiary education. is contrasted with the rest, as courses at this level are more likely to be of a professional nature, whereas courses at ISCED 6 x ISCED 6: Bachelors' or equivalent level Programmes at this level, are often designed to provide participants with intermediate academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a first degree or equivalent qualification. Entry into these programmes normally requires the successful completion of an ISCED level 3 or 4 programme with access to tertiary education. Entry may depend on subject choice and/or grades achieved at ISCED levels 3 and/or 4. Additionally, it may be required to take and succeed in entry examinations. Entry or transfer into ISCED level 6 is also sometimes possible after the successful completion of ISCED level 5. to 8 x ISCED 8: Doctoral or equivalent level Programmes at this level are designed primarily to lead to an advanced research qualification. Programmes at this ISCED level are devoted to advanced study and original research and are typically offered only by research-oriented tertiary educational institutions such as universities. Doctoral programmes exist in both academic and professional fields. The theoretical duration of these programmes is three years full-time in most countries, although the actual time that students take to complete the programmes is typically longer. Programmes classified at ISCED level 8 may be referred to in many ways, for example: PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar terms. To compare these internationally, the term, 'doctoral or equivalent level' is used to label ISCED level 8. are more likely to be academic. In most Member States, student-staff ratios range from slightly below 10 % to above 20 %. However, these relatively homogeneous ratios mask the complex landscapes of teaching at tertiary level. In many Member States, staff in professional education dedicate more time to teaching than their colleagues in academia. In academic higher education, teaching is mostly carried out by junior and middle-ranking staff. However, PhD candidates pursuing an academic career do not necessarily follow training to develop their teaching skills before they start teaching, nor do they do so later in their career. Those who teach in professional education have an even wider profile as some are school-based, while others work in companies. School-based teachers could be teaching general subjects, professional theory subjects, or practical subjects. Teaching qualification requirements are stricter for school based teachers, however in 2015, Ministers in charge of vocational education concluded that the professional development of vocational education teachers and trainers needs to become a higher priority in national policies. Click on Member States to view requirements for academics and VET teachers. A Eurydice study on academic staff points out that while all Member States evaluate the quality of teaching as part of the external quality assurance of higher education institutions, the elements taken into consideration vary widely. These include teaching methods, innovation and good practice, teaching hours, tutoring and teaching qualifications. In 2015, Member States adopted standards and guidelines for quality assurance in the European higher education area to improve upon the situation. These provide a common framework and the European quality assurance register keeps a database of higher education institutions and programmes whose external evaluation was in line with these standards, as well as the results of the reports. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Financing Tertiary education in the EU is predominantly funded from public sources. Public expenditure on tertiary education covers payments from all levels of government and finances all types of institutions and entities that provide tertiary education or supporting services. It also includes transfers such as subsidies to households. The ratio of tertiary education expenditure as a proportion of GDP indicates the level of public effort in support of both academic and professional tertiary education compared to the strength of the economy, while the comparison with total public expenditure shows the relative priority of the sector as a policy area (click on Member State to view). Public spending is complemented by private contributions, such as the sponsorship of research projects by some private businesses. In some Member States x Country Codes AT: Austria UK-WL: United Kingdom - Wales (Austria, Czech Republic, Croatia, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovenia), the parents of most tertiary level students do not hold a degree. However, throughout the EU, students without a higher education background tend to be older, as they transition to tertiary education later and they are more likely to attend non-university higher education institutions. Students whose parents have a low level of education are under-represented in all Member States and where the number of students from medium educated families has increased, this was because higher education institutions were admitting more students ( Bologna process report 2018 ). Furthermore, students with parents without higher education and students with a migrant background are still likely to be among the groups that face greater obstacles to completing their studies. Click on a Member State to view the ratio of graduates whose parents do not hold a degree. Statistics for 2016 reveal that native-born students are more likely to graduate from upper-secondary and post-secondary levels than foreign-born students, but the trend is weaker for graduates at tertiary level. Statistics on migrants focus on persons who were not born in a given country. This definition excludes second-generation individuals, but includes students who go to another country specifically to study, and are therefore likely to be highly committed. The 2015 Bologna process report indicates that when these success rates are read alongside statistics on early school leaving, it becomes clear that immigrant students in most Member States suffer a disadvantage. Even so, this still does not shed light on the situation of second-generation students. Further reading Chircop, D., Education Policy in the Europe 2020 Strategy , EPRS, European Parliament, 2015. Katsarova, I., Integration of migrants: The education dimension , EPRS, European Parliament, 2016. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Learning mobility Within the European Union, students can study abroad for a part or the whole of a degree programme. The experience helps students acquire a wide range of skills and exposes them to new perspectives. At the same time, sending and receiving institutions need to cooperate with each other when students move for just a part of their studies. The Commission anticipates these exchanges will make the European Higher Education Area x Bologna Process An agreement between 48 states, including all the EU Member States, which establishes the 'European Higher Education Area', making it easier for a university to recognise partial studies or qualifications from another university within the area. This depends on an ongoing collective effort to harmonise systems. Universities and stakeholder bodies such as student, faculty and business associations, and relevant levels of government, from local to the EU, are involved in the implementation of a three tier system of university degrees - bachelor, master and doctorate - and the strengthening of quality assurance. The process also introduced units of study, known as credits, to stipulate the hours of study required for a course and learning outcomes, in order to establish equivalence. more tangible as they generate new ideas, methods and skills, and create the need to adapt procedures. The mobility target for the whole of the European Higher Education Area is 20 % of graduates by 2020, but Member States are free to set their own mobility targets if they wish to do so. In fact, not all Member States have such a target. Click on the Member State's initials on the horizontal axis for further information. Three years of data collection of incoming students suggests that they come mostly from neighbouring countries or countries that have linguistic or cultural affinities. Further reading Chircop, D., Erasmus+: More than just mobility , EPRS, European Parliament, 2015. Internationalisation of Higher Education , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2015. Klugman, C. and Salm, C., EU support for education: Improving young people's chances on the job market , EPRS, European Parliament, 2017. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Impact on employment The employment x Employed persons Persons aged 15 years and over in one of the following categories: (a) persons who during the reference week worked for at least one hour for pay, profit or gain; (b) persons who were not at work during the reference week but had a job or business from which they were temporarily absent. This definition is applicable to employees, self-employed persons and family workers. Pay includes cash payments or 'payment in kind' (payment in goods or services rather than money), irrespective of whether payment was received in the same week or not. Exceptions to the standard age group of 15 year olds and over are: 16 year olds and over in Spainand the United Kingdom; and 15 to 74 year olds in Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary and Latvia, (adapted from Eurostat). prospects for graduates are influenced by a number of factors, such as the state of the economy and the labour market, students' location, their mobility, previous work experience and discrimination. Experienced graduates are more likely to be in employment than recent ones, but newcomers on the labour market with a higher level of education usually also find employment faster than those with a lower level of education. Click on a Member State to view adult unemployment x Unemployed persons Persons aged 15 to 74 years (16 to 74 years in Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) who: (1) were without work during the reference week; (2) are available to start work within two weeks or have found a job to start within the next three months; (3) actively sought employment at some time during the last four weeks. The employment rate is the number of unemployed people as a percentage of the labour force, (Eurostat). statistics - the definition of which is more precise than 'employment' statistics that obscure phenomena such as ' underemployment x Underemployed persons Underemployed persons are people aged between 15-74 years who work part-time, who would like to work additional hours and are available to do so. Eurostat distinguishes this group from another group of people who have an insufficient income even though they work full-time. '. The relative advantage of men over women and that of the more qualified persist when looking at both sets of data, but the situation is not even in all Member States. While the difference in unemployment rates explained by different levels of qualifications is narrow, in countries like Sweden and Denmark, it is marked in countries like Spain and Lithuania. Further reading Chircop, D., An overview of the EU Youth Strategy 2013-2015 , EPRS, European Parliament, 2016. Katsarova, I., The EU's youth initiatives: Closing the gap between education and employment , EPRS, European Parliament, 2016. Skills development and Employment: Apprenticeships, internships and volunteering , Policy department for economic and scientific policy, Employment and Social Affairs, European Parliament, 2017. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. SECTION EU-Actions Adult education Introduction Adult learning is a wide term, ranging from self-teaching to programmes that explicitly or implicitly impart basic skills x Basic skills Following the source of the data being presented,basic skills is used here to refer to literacy, numeracy and digital skills. There is no international agreement on the definition of basic skills and it has been used to refer to skills related to listening, speaking, reading, writing, mathematics, information and communication technology (ICT), foreign languages, social skills, organisational skills, communication, technological culture and entrepreneurship (adapted from Eurydice). , learning groups engaged in raising awareness on various issues, mature students at university, open and distance learning, on-the-job training and retraining, courses that combine theory with practice, and classes or other learning activities taken in pursuit of a special interest. Formal education x Formal education The system in a country that imparts full-time education and training in an official and structured way from the primary up to tertiary and adult education. Formal education is organised by public or publicly recognised institutions, with clearly defined stages leading to formal qualifications which are recognised by national educational authorities. is not predominant at this stage, so it is harder to encapsulate adult learning through an organisational structure. However, policies do exist to promote adult learning and the EU set itself a target of 15 % adult participation by 2020. The participation rate in the EU rose from 10.6 % in 2015 to 12.4 % in 2017. The EU focuses on programmes that impart initial education and update skills, so that low-skilled adults gain and maintain employment. This is also reflected in the type of statistics that have been collected at EU level. Initial education Several Member States organise provision to help adults with low qualifications to improve their level of education. The map shows what Member States offer as initial education x Initial education Formal education, usually for young people, before they enter the labour market for the first time. for mature learners. In some instances, courses lead up to a specific level such as primary x ISCED 1: Primary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to provide pupils with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy) and establish a solid foundation for learning and understanding core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, in preparation for lower secondary education. Age is typically the only entry requirement at this level. The customary or legal age of entry is usually not below five years old nor above seven years old. This level typically lasts six years, although its duration can range between four and seven years. and/or lower secondary x ISCED 2: Lower secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to build on the learning outcomes from ISCED level 1. Students enter ISCED level 2 typically between ages 10 and 13 (age 12 being the most common). . In others, it copies the single structure of the schooling system in that country. Click on a Member State to see whether it provides programmes or schemes with a combination of programmes to impart basic skills x Basic skills Following the source of the data being presented,basic skills is used here to refer to literacy, numeracy and digital skills. There is no international agreement on the definition of basic skills and it has been used to refer to skills related to listening, speaking, reading, writing, mathematics, information and communication technology (ICT), foreign languages, social skills, organisational skills, communication, technological culture and entrepreneurship (adapted from Eurydice). , where adult learning programmes are organised in schools or in other settings, and what is available in terms of distance learning x Distance learning Distance learning involves the sending of learning materials to a learner in a remote location over the internet or by post. . Some public authorities use school buildings to host formal education courses for adults in the evenings. Others host such courses in separate educational institutions that cater specifically for adults. These institutions are often also the most important providers of non-formal education, training and other services such as guidance and validation for mature learners. Distance learning x Distance learning Distance learning involves the sending of learning materials to a learner in a remote location over the internet or by post. , which includes e-learning x E-learning Electronic learning activities depend on the use of information and communication technology (ICT) and learners could be either present on the premises of an educational institution or in a remote location. and blended learning x Blended learning The combination of distance learning or e-learning with face-to-face teaching and learning. The difference between distance learning and e-learning is that distance learning involves the sending of learning materials to a learner in a remote location over the internet or by post. On the other hand, e-learning activities depend on the availability of ICT, and learners can be present on the premises of the educational institution. , is one way of providing adults with flexible ways of improving their educational levels. In some Member States, distance learning provides comprehensive coverage and is publicly subsidised. In others, large scale programmes promote, coordinate and deliver distance-learning. In many Member States, however, distance-learning programmes for adults are mostly local and/or privately funded initiatives. Further reading Adult education and open educational resources , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2015. Margaras, V., The regions in the digital single market: ICT and digital opportunities for European regions , EPRS, European Parliament, 2018. EU funding of cultural work with refugees , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2017. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Continuing vocational training in enterprises One area of adult learning that has attracted attention at EU level is that of continuing vocational education and training (CVET). This is mainly funded by enterprises, possibly with some public contribution to back up policy priorities, such as extending opportunities to otherwise untargeted audiences. Employers could be motivated to invest in on-the-job training to boost productivity, reduce recruitment costs, improve attractiveness and ensure better diffusion of in-house expertise. However, there are also costs such as fees, time away from the job and the expenses of dedicated spaces and learning materials. These costs can rise up to around 2.5 % of labour costs, but more usually range between 1 % and 2 %. Click on any of the Member States to view training costs as a percentage of labour costs. In the EU, 88 % of enterprises employing over 250 employees offer CVET to the benefit of 48 % of the employees. Conversely, opportunities decrease with the size of the enterprise, as 66 % of companies employing between 50 and 249 employees and 48 % of firms employing between 10 and 49 employees offer CVET, creating opportunities for 37 % and 30 % of their workers respectively. While participants would benefit from the formal recognition of skills gained, some employers hesitate to provide validation following training, to avoid poaching by other companies. Further reading Erasmus for young entrepreneurs , Policy Department for Budgetary Affairs, European Parliament, 2013. Kiss, M., Matching skills and jobs in the European Union , EPRS, European Parliament, 2016. Skills development and employment: New Skills Agenda for Europe , Policy Department for Economic and Scientific Policy, Employment and Social Affairs, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2016. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Access In Europe 6.5 % of adults have primary level education x ISCED 1: Primary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to provide pupils with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy) and establish a solid foundation for learning and understanding core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, in preparation for lower secondary education. Age is typically the only entry requirement at this level. The customary or legal age of entry is usually not below five years old nor above seven years old. This level typically lasts six years, although its duration can range between four and seven years. at most. As the graphic shows, in 13 Member States, they need to complete lower secondary education (ISCED 2) x ISCED 2: Lower secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to build on the learning outcomes from ISCED level 1. Students enter ISCED level 2 typically between ages 10 and 13 (age 12 being the most common). before they can progress to the upper secondary level (ISCED 3) x ISCED 3: Upper secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education or provide skills relevant to employment, or both. Pupils enter this level typically between the ages of 14 and 16 years. , so the lack of qualifications can be an obstacle. Among these 13 Member States, only Luxembourg and the Netherlands offer alternative routes to higher education. In all the Member States where alternative routes to higher education are available, universities might recognise other qualifications, or offer bridging courses prior to university entry, but uptake is uneven and completion rates are low, a sign that greater support is needed. Most Member States offer adults access to some programmes with a modular design. If recognised, modules and credits act like ‘building blocks’, which is useful for those who find it difficult to finish a course at one go, yet basic skills x Basic skills Following the source of the data being presented,basic skills is used here to refer to literacy, numeracy and digital skills. There is no international agreement on the definition of basic skills and it has been used to refer to skills related to listening, speaking, reading, writing, mathematics, information and communication technology (ICT), foreign languages, social skills, organisational skills, communication, technological culture and entrepreneurship (adapted from Eurydice). programmes rarely have a modular format. While higher education institutions use credits, modules are common in the validation of CVET, however the lack of agreement on how much studying equals ‘one module’ hinders recognition between institutions. Financial support is provided to help adult learners overcome financial obstacles (click on Member State). Member States target individual entitlements such as grants, allowances, vouchers, loans or paid training leave towards adults with low levels of qualifications, or other groups such as jobseekers, non-native speakers and older employees. Some adults may simply not know what educational opportunities are available to them. In such cases, guidance can help them plan future learning. Adults with internet access and basic search skills can use electronic databases with information about learning opportunities. Click on Member States to view country specific information. Further reading Boucher, P. N., Assistive technologies for people with disabilities , Science and Technology Options Assessment, European Parliament, 2018. European lifelong guidance policies, New Skills Agenda and Europass revision: State of play , Policy Department for Economy and Scientific Policy, European Parliament, 2017. Skills development and employment: the role of career management skills , Policy Department for Economy and Scientific Policy, European Parliament, 2017. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Validation Within the EU, the validation of non-formal x Non-formal education Education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned by an education provider as an addition, alternative and/or complement to formal education as part of lifelong learning. It is often provided to guarantee the right of access to education for all. It caters to people of all ages, but it may be short in duration and/or low-intensity. Non-formal education is typically provided in the form of short courses, workshops or seminars. It leads mostly to qualifications that are not recognised by the relevant national or sub-national education authorities or it could lead to no qualifications at all. Nevertheless, some specific non-formal education programmes can lead to, recognised qualifications especially when their aim is to fill in the gaps in a person's formal education. and informal x Informal education Learning that is intentional, but less organised and less structured than non-formal learning. It includes learning activities that occur in the family, in the workplace, and in the daily life of every person, on a self-directed, family-directed or socially-directed basis. learning is on the increase and, while mainly used to provide access to higher education, can also help adults to move from lower secondary x ISCED 2: Lower secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to build on the learning outcomes from ISCED level 1. Students enter ISCED level 2 typically between ages 10 and 13 (age 12 being the most common). to upper secondary x ISCED 3: Upper secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education or provide skills relevant to employment, or both. Pupils enter this level typically between the ages of 14 and 16 years. education. Validation procedures certify the skills and knowledge that individuals with low qualifications develop in their profession or elsewhere. The most common use is the award of partial or full qualifications, followed by credits, exemptions and access to formal programmes. However, validation rarely serves to shorten courses, due to difficulties with implementation. In some Member States it is possible to receive training specifications with the validation procedure, meaning that a plan for future training is created. This practice is most usual in initial and continued vocational training x Vocational education and training Abbreviated as 'VET', sometimes simply called 'vocational training', it is the training in skills and teaching of knowledge related to a specific trade, occupation or vocation in which the student or employee wishes to participate. Vocational education may be undertaken at an educational institution, as part of secondary or tertiary education, or may be part of initial training during employment, for example as an apprentice, or as a combination of formal education and workplace learning (dual system). . Click on the Member States for country specific information. At EU level, the 'YOUTHPASS' certificate validates non-formal and informal learning following participation in an 'Erasmus+' mobility project. Member States have adopted a variety of approaches to the validation of non-formal x Non-formal education Education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned by an education provider as an addition, alternative and/or complement to formal education as part of lifelong learning. It is often provided to guarantee the right of access to education for all. It caters to people of all ages, but it may be short in duration and/or low-intensity. Non-formal education is typically provided in the form of short courses, workshops or seminars. It leads mostly to qualifications that are not recognised by the relevant national or sub-national education authorities or it could lead to no qualifications at all. Nevertheless, some specific non-formal education programmes can lead to, recognised qualifications especially when their aim is to fill in the gaps in a person's formal education. and informal learning x Informal education Learning that is intentional, but less organised and less structured than non-formal learning. It includes learning activities that occur in the family, in the workplace, and in the daily life of every person, on a self-directed, family-directed or socially-directed basis. . In some cases, the arrangements are on a national level and take the form of a legal framework, a strategy or a policy that brings three sectors together: the educational system, the labour market and third sector organisations such as charities or NGOs. Alternatively, Member States have chosen to focus specifically on one or two of the sectors in their arrangements. Whatever the approach, validation is still in its early stages in many Member States and requires more resources to become truly effective. Further reading European Solidarity Corps and volunteering , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2017. Focus on: European Qualifications Framework , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2013. Language teaching and learning within EU Member States , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2016. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Mature students There is no single description of 'mature student' in higher education, although some Member States do have a precise definition for policy reasons or to be able to count them in national statistics. In general, these students are perceived as being older than the typical student and having returned to formal education after a period of time. Often, mature students choose programmes with flexible arrangements such as part-time, open, e-learning x E-learning Electronic learning activities depend on the use of information and communication technology (ICT) and learners could be either present on the premises of an educational institution or in a remote location. or distance learning x Distance learning Distance learning involves the sending of learning materials to a learner in a remote location over the internet or by post. courses. A look at the map reveals a trend for adult women to participate in education more than men. This is opposite to the case of job-related training. Employed women have a slight but statistically significant disadvantage in all Member States, except Finland. In the EU, in 2013, less than 1 % of adults claimed to have earned an upper secondary level x ISCED 3: Upper secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education or provide skills relevant to employment, or both. Pupils enter this level typically between the ages of 14 and 16 years. certificate in their adulthood, while 3.6 % claimed to have completed tertiary education x Tertiary education Tertiary education builds on secondary education and provides learning activities in specialised fields, at a high level of complexity. It includes academic education as well as advanced vocational or professional education. It comprises International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) levels 5-8, ranging from short-cycle tertiary education to bachelor’s or equivalent, master’s or equivalent, and doctoral or equivalent level. . Upper secondary provision for mature students is usually quite flexible and is organised on a part-time basis or as evening classes. However, around a fourth of adults aged between 25 and 64 years do not have an upper secondary level of education and adults often need to present a school leaving certificate and meet age requirements to be admitted. Click on a Member State to see the percentage of adults with an attainment level below upper and lower secondary, how many achieved higher qualifications in their adulthood and the gender breakdown in participation. Further reading EU funding for cultural work with refugees: current practice and lessons learned , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, 2017. EU funding for cultural work with refugees: towards the next programme generation , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, 2017. Female refugees and asylum seekers: the issue of integration , Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs, Women's Rights and Gender Equality, European Parliament, 2016. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Participation in adult learning Participation in adult learning is higher for 25-54 year olds than for 55-74 year olds. Cedefop comments that some employers might invest less in training older employees as they expect a lower return on investment. Overall, the three most cited reasons for not participating in education and training among adults were lack of need; lack of time due to family responsibilities; and conflict with the work schedule. Older workers cited age, health issues and family responsibilities, but on the whole they saw fewer barriers than younger people. One of the starkest gaps in participation rates is the difference between unemployed persons x Unemployed persons Persons aged 15 to 74 years (16 to 74 years in Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) who: (1) were without work during the reference week; (2) are available to start work within two weeks or have found a job to start within the next three months; (3) actively sought employment at some time during the last four weeks. The employment rate is the number of unemployed people as a percentage of the labour force, (Eurostat). and employed persons x Employed persons Persons aged 15 years and over in one of the following categories: (a) persons who during the reference week worked for at least one hour for pay, profit or gain; (b) persons who were not at work during the reference week but had a job or business from which they were temporarily absent. This definition is applicable to employees, self-employed persons and family workers. Pay includes cash payments or 'payment in kind' (payment in goods or services rather than money), irrespective of whether payment was received in the same week or not. Exceptions to the standard age group of 15 year olds and over are: 16 year olds and over in Spainand the United Kingdom; and 15 to 74 year olds in Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary and Latvia, (adapted from Eurostat). , whatever the age group. Cedefop points out the double handicap experienced by unemployed persons, who have fewer opportunities to acquire skills informally in a work context or to participate in job related non-formal x Non-formal education Education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned by an education provider as an addition, alternative and/or complement to formal education as part of lifelong learning. It is often provided to guarantee the right of access to education for all. It caters to people of all ages, but it may be short in duration and/or low-intensity. Non-formal education is typically provided in the form of short courses, workshops or seminars. It leads mostly to qualifications that are not recognised by the relevant national or sub-national education authorities or it could lead to no qualifications at all. Nevertheless, some specific non-formal education programmes can lead to, recognised qualifications especially when their aim is to fill in the gaps in a person's formal education. learning. However, even within groups of employees, distinctions are evident as opportunities generally diminish for employees at the lower levels, those working part-time, those working in sectors requiring low skills intensity, and in small and medium sized establishments. The main graphic allows you to visualise the interaction between age and employment status. This is complemented by a secondary graphic that shows the breakdown by age and employment status of those attending formal x Formal education The system in a country that imparts full-time education and training in an official and structured way from the primary up to tertiary and adult education. Formal education is organised by public or publicly recognised institutions, with clearly defined stages leading to formal qualifications which are recognised by national educational authorities. and non-formal x Non-formal education Education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned by an education provider as an addition, alternative and/or complement to formal education as part of lifelong learning. It is often provided to guarantee the right of access to education for all. It caters to people of all ages, but it may be short in duration and/or low-intensity. Non-formal education is typically provided in the form of short courses, workshops or seminars. It leads mostly to qualifications that are not recognised by the relevant national or sub-national education authorities or it could lead to no qualifications at all. Nevertheless, some specific non-formal education programmes can lead to, recognised qualifications especially when their aim is to fill in the gaps in a person's formal education. education programmes. Click on a Member State to view. Country-specific information also shows that young people are more likely to look for information about education and training and to engage in learning activities on the internet than older adults. The 'renewed agenda for adult learning' (2011) stressed the potential of ICT to motivate adults to take up learning and to reach new target groups, particularly persons with reduced mobility and those living in remote areas. However, few countries have comprehensive policies to promote adult learning over the internet. Those that do are also the most successful Member States in encouraging the use of ICT in adult learning. Further reading Pasikowska-Schnass, M., Cultural heritage in EU policies , EPRS, European Parliament, 2018. Promoting media and information literacy in libraries , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2016. The new role of public libraries in local communities , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2016. Valant, J., Improving the financial literacy of European consumers , EPRS, European Parliament, 2015. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. Impact on employment and additional learning Employment x Employed persons Persons aged 15 years and over in one of the following categories: (a) persons who during the reference week worked for at least one hour for pay, profit or gain; (b) persons who were not at work during the reference week but had a job or business from which they were temporarily absent. This definition is applicable to employees, self-employed persons and family workers. Pay includes cash payments or 'payment in kind' (payment in goods or services rather than money), irrespective of whether payment was received in the same week or not. Exceptions to the standard age group of 15 year olds and over are: 16 year olds and over in Spainand the United Kingdom; and 15 to 74 year olds in Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary and Latvia, (adapted from Eurostat). statistics reveal that adults with tertiary education (ISCED 5-8) x Tertiary education Tertiary education builds on secondary education and provides learning activities in specialised fields, at a high level of complexity. It includes academic education as well as advanced vocational or professional education. It comprises International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) levels 5-8, ranging from short-cycle tertiary education to bachelor’s or equivalent, master’s or equivalent, and doctoral or equivalent level. have an employment rate of 84.8 %, those with upper x ISCED 3: Upper secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education or provide skills relevant to employment, or both. Pupils enter this level typically between the ages of 14 and 16 years. and post-secondary x ISCED 4: Post-secondary non-tertiary education Post-secondary non-tertiary education provides learning experiences that build on secondary education and prepare for the labour market or admission to tertiary courses if ISCED level 3 qualifications are not sufficient. The completion of an ISCED level 3 programme is required to enter ISCED level 4 programmes. education (ISCED 3-4) 74.8 %, and those with lower secondary x ISCED 2: Lower secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to build on the learning outcomes from ISCED level 1. Students enter ISCED level 2 typically between ages 10 and 13 (age 12 being the most common). or less x ISCED 1: Primary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to provide pupils with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy) and establish a solid foundation for learning and understanding core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, in preparation for lower secondary education. Age is typically the only entry requirement at this level. The customary or legal age of entry is usually not below five years old nor above seven years old. This level typically lasts six years, although its duration can range between four and seven years. (ISCED 0-2), 54.3 %. This last group was also hit hardest during the crisis period between 2007 and 2013, with a decrease in employment of 5.1 % as opposed to 1.8 % and 1.7 % respectively in the other two groups. Lower levels of education have an even more negative impact on female employment levels. While policy documents in Member States often explicitly mention the promotion of lifelong learning to underrepresented groups, a Eurydice study points out that objectives and targets rarely accompany these statements. Many countries have carried out considerable awareness-raising and outreach campaigns, but their impact on the participation of underrepresented groups is seldom evaluated. Some 80 % of adults who do not participate in lifelong learning, especially adults with low levels of education, express no interest in doing so and seek no information about learning opportunities. Low-skilled employees are also less likely to participate in education and training sessions, which can be related to negative attitudes towards education, but also to lack of opportunities. The EU's education and training strategy, ET2020 x ET2020 The follow-up to the 'education and training 2010 work programme', the strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (later known as ET2020), was adopted by the Council in May 2009. It sets out four strategic objectives for education and training in the EU, namely: making lifelong learning and mobility a reality; improving the quality and efficiency of education and training; promoting equality, social cohesion and active citizenship; and enhancing creativity and innovation (including entrepreneurship) at all levels of education and training. The ET2020 strategy also sets a number of benchmarks to achieve by 2020. is attentive to the issue of equity in adult learning. It states that every adult should have the chance to learn and train, to obtain and maintain a job or to progress in a career. The strategy also recognises adult learning as essential for personal development and active citizenship. The Commission works with Member States to implement the European agenda for adult learning by facilitating a network of national coordinators to exchange best practices. The Commission also publishes indicators and data on the current situation to bring evidence to the table and to support more effective policies. The European Parliament examines Commission communications and proposals on lifelong learning very closely, through the work of its Committee on Culture and Education (CULT). Parliament also proposes pilot projects, which if successful, become the basis for future EU initiatives that support lifelong learning. Further reading Katsarova, I., The EU's youth initiatives: Closing the gap between education and employment , EPRS, European Parliament, 2014. Liva, G. and Milotay, N., Fostering social innovation in the European Union , EPRS, European Parliament, 2017. Pasikowska-Schnass, M., International Roma Day: How the European Union supports the study of Roma culture, language and history , EPRS, European Parliament, 2018. Sources Click on the icon at the bottom right of the graphic. SECTION EU-Actions EU measures European Union While the organisation and content of education remain the sole responsibility of Member States, the European Union supports lifelong learning by coordinating cooperation between them. In 2009, Education Ministers agreed on a strategy of cooperation on education and training for the next ten years up to 2020. This strategy is commonly referred to as ET2020, x ET2020 The follow-up to the 'education and training 2010 work programme', the strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (later known as ET2020), was adopted by the Council in May 2009. It sets out four strategic objectives for education and training in the EU, namely: making lifelong learning and mobility a reality; improving the quality and efficiency of education and training; promoting equality, social cohesion and active citizenship; and enhancing creativity and innovation (including entrepreneurship) at all levels of education and training. The ET2020 strategy also sets a number of benchmarks to achieve by 2020. and is supported by Erasmus+, the funding programme dedicated to education, training, youth and sport, as well as other EU funding programmes. The first graphic shows a breakdown of the Erasmus+ budget in 2016. As cooperation continues to evolve, the European Commission launched the idea of a European Education Area alongside its proposal for the new Erasmus programme post-2020. One of its aims is that study periods and diplomas would become automatically recognised. Early childhood education and care (ECEC) As part of ET2020, the European Council agreed that by 2020 at least 95 % of children, aged 4 years or older would participate in early childhood education, given the evidence of long-term benefits of learning at a very young age. Establishing a target allows monitoring of progress in Member States. In May 2018, the relevant Thematic Working Group proposed a framework that defines quality in early childhood education, taking elements such as professional development, staff working conditions and curricula into account. Funding from the European Structural and Investment Funds helps with infrastructural projects. Horizon 2020 supports research and analysis on the most effective ECEC methods. Erasmus+ offers staff development opportunities, while the European Social Fund supports projects targeting children of that age group from marginalised communities such as Roma. Compulsory education The EU supports better quality in schools by gathering and sharing information and analysis and encouraging the exchange of good policy practices through the ET2020 working groups . These working groups, attended by representatives of education ministries and principal stakeholders, discuss themes such as early school leaving x Early school leaver Also designated as an early leaver from education and training, this refers to a person aged 18 to 24 years, who has completed at most lower secondary education and is not involved in further education or training. The indicator 'early leavers from education and training' is expressed as a percentage of the people aged 18 to 24 years meeting these criteria out of the total population of that age group. , the teaching of mathematics, science and technology (STEM subjects) and teachers' professional development. The European Commission also discusses multilingual teaching and learning in class to improve the inclusion of students who at home speak languages other than the language of instruction. It also mediates between the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education and Member States interested in implementing the education provisions in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities. Member States can also voluntarily seek assistance to design and implement major reforms in school education with the technical support of the OECD, the Commission's Structural Reform Support Service, and funding instruments such as the European Structural and Investment Funds and Erasmus+. Cooperation also builds contacts at grassroots levels. For instance, the eTwinning platform builds partnerships between schools, which can lead to teacher and pupil mobility. Another online platform for teachers, the School education gateway, hosts fora, a resource centre and a training opportunities catalogue. The Commission is also developing a self-assessment tool for schools to check how effectively they harness ICT, while links between schools, higher education institutions, research centres and businesses are beginning to influence the teaching of STEM subjects and find ways to reduce the gender gap in the uptake of these subjects. Higher education The European Council also agreed that by 2020, 40 % of young Europeans are to have a higher education qualification or equivalent and that 20 % of these students would spend a study period abroad. The EU helps Member States reach these targets with funds from the European Investment Bank, the European Fund for Strategic Investments and the European Structural and Investment Funds to build the infrastructural capacity. The latter fund also helps develop facilities, skills and innovation projects. The Commission also provides studies and analysis and coordinates exercises in mutual learning between governments and other authorities responsible for higher education to help them make informed policy decisions. It funds innovation projects that bring partners and higher education institutions together by means of the Horizon 2020 and Erasmus+ funding programmes. Erasmus+ also supports the international mobility of students, staff and researchers. The second graphic shows that this is the biggest share of the budget allocation in Erasmsus+ dedicated to learning mobility. Bologna Process x Bologna Process An agreement between 48 states, including all the EU Member States, which establishes the 'European Higher Education Area', making it easier for a university to recognise partial studies or qualifications from another university within the area. This depends on an ongoing collective effort to harmonise systems. Universities and stakeholder bodies such as student, faculty and business associations, and relevant levels of government, from local to the EU, are involved in the implementation of a three tier system of university degrees - bachelor, master and doctorate - and the strengthening of quality assurance. The process also introduced units of study, known as credits, to stipulate the hours of study required for a course and learning outcomes, in order to establish equivalence. tools such as ECTS x ECTS The European credit transfer and accumulation system (ECTS) is a credit system designed to help students who want to study in different countries, as the credits can be transferred from one university to another to add up to a degree programme. This is a central tool in the Bologna Process. Credits represent the workload expressed in hours of study and learning outcomes reflected in what a student is expected to be able to understand and do. A full year of study or work equals 60 credits, which are usually broken down into several smaller components in a standard academic year. and the diploma supplement further ease mobility, although the recognition of skills and qualifications gained abroad remains difficult. The renewed agenda for the modernisation of higher education identifies four key goals to focus future EU actions in favour of higher education. They prioritise tackling skills mismatches; furthering endeavours to make higher education institutions more inclusive and connected, putting higher education institutions in a position to contribute to innovation, and supporting effective and efficient higher education systems. Vocational education and training European Ministers of Vocational Education and Training (VET) and the European Commission reached an agreement, known as the Copenhagen Process, to enhance cooperation to improve the quality of initial and continuing VET. This cooperation is focused on the professional development of teachers and trainers in the sector, and making courses more relevant to the labour market. Developments in policies related to work-based learning can be supported by the exchange of experiences between Member States. When they are set up, sector skills alliances built under Erasmus+ help close the gap between VET institutions and actors in a specific sector of the economy. However, funding does not yet meet the demand. The development of a quality assurance framework (EQAVET) acts as a reference for Member States to promote and monitor improvements as well as to pave the way for the acceptance and recognition of skills and competencies acquired in a different Member State or learning environment. The European Commission supports the use of the European credit system for vocational education and training, ECVET, for mobility purposes. Adult education Member States agreed that 15 % of adults aged between 25 and 64 years old across the EU would be engaged in some form of adult learning by 2020. The European Commission brings together a network of national coordinators who exchange best practices and works with associations, networks and labour organisations to promote adult learning. It also published a number of studies and reports on adult learning. The European Agenda for Adult Learning serves to guide policy. The European Commission hosts the ePlatform for Adult Learning in Europe, EPALE, a multilingual online space that brings together communities of practice, a resource centre, an events calendar and a partner search-tool. Further reading Chircop, D., European Parliament evaluation of Erasmus+ implementation , EPRS, European Parliament, 2016. Chircop, D., European Solidarity Corps , EPRS, European Parliament, 2017. ESIF and culture, education, youth and sport - the use of European Structural and Investment Funds in policy areas of the Committee on Culture and Education , Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Culture and Education, European Parliament, 2018. Katsarova, I., Creating opportunities: The EU and students , EPRS, European Parliament, 2017. Pasikowska-Schnass, M., Arts, culture, and cultural awareness in education , EPRS, European Parliament, 2017. European Parliament In its resolutions adopted during the eighth term (2014-2019), the European Parliament points out that education is a fundamental right and a public good that should be adequately resourced and equally accessible to all. It regrets the persistent problems in quality, accessibility and socio-economic discrimination in education and training and calls for more ambitious, coordinated and effective policies at both EU and national level. Parliament wants greater inclusivity, by catering for students with special needs, for instance. It points out the need to pay greater attention to the gender perspective of educational strategies, the need to better integrate foreign-born children in schools, and to offer learning opportunities to those coming into the EU or moving within it, besides recognising their skills and qualifications. The European Parliament favours the new focus on improving support for teachers and efforts to make their profession more attractive. It points out that investing in early childhood education and care reduces costs later but also insists on the availability of relevant second chance education, to make it possible for those who left school early to return. Parliament encourages improvements in the assessment of higher educational establishments and encourages broad partnerships to support countries encountering difficulties in the implementation of reforms associated with membership in the European Higher Education Area x Bologna Process An agreement between 48 states, including all the EU Member States, which establishes the 'European Higher Education Area', making it easier for a university to recognise partial studies or qualifications from another university within the area. This depends on an ongoing collective effort to harmonise systems. Universities and stakeholder bodies such as student, faculty and business associations, and relevant levels of government, from local to the EU, are involved in the implementation of a three tier system of university degrees - bachelor, master and doctorate - and the strengthening of quality assurance. The process also introduced units of study, known as credits, to stipulate the hours of study required for a course and learning outcomes, in order to establish equivalence. . Parliament calls for efforts to bridge the technological gap between educational institutions as part of national strategies for digital skills and to support distance learning with investments from the European Social Fund. Members support stronger links between education and employment. These include training schemes that combine apprenticeships with education in vocational schools and improved mobility options in Erasmus+ for young people in vocational education. Equally important is the development of tools that make it possible to validate and recognise the outcomes of non-formal x Non-formal education Education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned by an education provider as an addition, alternative and/or complement to formal education as part of lifelong learning. It is often provided to guarantee the right of access to education for all. It caters to people of all ages, but it may be short in duration and/or low-intensity. Non-formal education is typically provided in the form of short courses, workshops or seminars. It leads mostly to qualifications that are not recognised by the relevant national or sub-national education authorities or it could lead to no qualifications at all. Nevertheless, some specific non-formal education programmes can lead to, recognised qualifications especially when their aim is to fill in the gaps in a person's formal education. and informal learning x Informal education Learning that is intentional, but less organised and less structured than non-formal learning. It includes learning activities that occur in the family, in the workplace, and in the daily life of every person, on a self-directed, family-directed or socially-directed basis. rapidly. They call for the European quality framework to be better aligned with society's needs and the full use of its potential to facilitate student and worker mobility. Members insist on the need to promote lifelong learning, inviting Member States to go beyond promoting the 'right occupational skills' and to include other elements, such as an entrepreneurial mind-set, creativity, critical thinking, respect for fundamental rights and values, an understanding of sustainability, and participation in the democratic process and social life. The European Parliament consistently defends the budget of the Erasmus+ funding programme as an educational tool that helps participants acquire these skills. Click on the book icon below for a sample of the European Parliament's resolutions. Parliament also proposes pilot projects in the field of lifelong learning to test the feasibility and usefulness of potential EU actions. Two examples included in the 2017 budget are entitled developing the use of new technologies and digital tools in education and media literacy for all ; pilot projects can be financed for two consecutive financial years. If a pilot project is successful, it can become a preparatory action, which is designed to formulate a proposal with a legal base for an EU policy, a piece of legislation or a programme with funding. Preparatory actions last a maximum of three further years. An example in the 2017 budget is the evaluation of higher education entrepreneurship programmes . Erasmus for young entrepreneurs was a pilot project in 2007 which, following its successful track record, became an established action under the COSME programme for small and medium-sized enterprises. Further reading Resolution of 23 June 2016 on follow-up of the strategic framework for European cooperation and training (ET 2020) , European Parliament. Resolution of 2 February 2017 on the implementation of Regulation (EU) No 1288/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2013 establishing 'Erasmus+': the Union programme for education, training, youth and sport and repealing Decisions No 1719/2006 EC, No 1720/2006/EC and No 1298/2008/EC , European Parliament. Resolution of 12 September 2017 on academic and further distance education as part of the European lifelong learning strategy , European Parliament. Resolution of 12 June 2018 on modernisation of education in the EU , European Parliament. Outlook While the EU is close to meeting its ET2020 targets for early-school leavers and tertiary education graduates, some regions and sections of the population lag behind. At the same time, the Commission points out that too many students leave school lacking basic skills, not all graduates can easily find suitable jobs, and access to a good education remains unequal. As part of its strategy to address these issues in the near future, the EU will focus its attention on improving access to, and the quality of, early childhood education, building links between schools and local communities, offering stronger support to teachers and school leaders and improving the quality of teaching in tertiary education. This animated infographic was last updated on 24 September 2018. Share this article Email Twitter Facebook To remain up to date with EU's approach to lifelong learning, regularly visit the EP Think Tank . Or send us an email on eprs@ep.europa.eu . Visit the European Parliamentary Research Service online blog Think Tank @EP_Thinktank SECTION EU-Actions Definitions Basic skills Following the source of the data being presented,basic skills is used here to refer to literacy, numeracy and digital skills. There is no international agreement on the definition of basic skills and it has been used to refer to skills related to listening, speaking, reading, writing, mathematics, information and communication technology (ICT), foreign languages, social skills, organisational skills, communication, technological culture and entrepreneurship (adapted from Eurydice). Blended learning The combination of distance learning or e-learning with face-to-face teaching and learning. The difference between distance learning and e-learning is that distance learning involves the sending of learning materials to a learner in a remote location over the internet or by post. On the other hand, e-learning activities depend on the availability of ICT, and learners can be present on the premises of the educational institution. Bologna Process An agreement between 48 states, including all the EU Member States, which establishes the 'European Higher Education Area', making it easier for a university to recognise partial studies or qualifications from another university within the area. This depends on an ongoing collective effort to harmonise systems. Universities and stakeholder bodies such as student, faculty and business associations, and relevant levels of government, from local to the EU, are involved in the implementation of a three tier system of university degrees - bachelor, master and doctorate - and the strengthening of quality assurance. The process also introduced units of study, known as credits, to stipulate the hours of study required for a course and learning outcomes, in order to establish equivalence. Curriculum The content taught in schools and defined by subjects, goals, structure, and workload for students. Curricula are specified in regulations, standards set by central educational authorities or recommendations at regional level. The compulsory core curriculum includes the subjects or domains of study that must be covered by all students, while a general curriculum offers rounded rather than specialist education. In addition to the core curriculum, there can be core curriculum options - that is, subjects that schools offer compulsorily, from which students make a selection, to cover part of their compulsory curriculum. Curriculum based learning can occur on school premises or outside, but nevertheless forms part of the formal programme. Distance learning Distance learning involves the sending of learning materials to a learner in a remote location over the internet or by post. Early school leaver Also designated as an early leaver from education and training, this refers to a person aged 18 to 24 years, who has completed at most lower secondary education and is not involved in further education or training. The indicator 'early leavers from education and training' is expressed as a percentage of the people aged 18 to 24 years meeting these criteria out of the total population of that age group. ECTS The European credit transfer and accumulation system (ECTS) is a credit system designed to help students who want to study in different countries, as the credits can be transferred from one university to another to add up to a degree programme. This is a central tool in the Bologna Process. Credits represent the workload expressed in hours of study and learning outcomes reflected in what a student is expected to be able to understand and do. A full year of study or work equals 60 credits, which are usually broken down into several smaller components in a standard academic year. Education Any act or experience that has a formative effect on an individual's mind, character, or physical ability. In a more restricted sense, education is the formal process by which society, through schools, colleges, universities and other institutions, deliberately transmits its cultural heritage and its accumulated knowledge, values and skills to the next generation. What constitutes 'worthwhile knowledge' and how it is passed on is a political decision and subject to debate. E-learning Electronic learning activities depend on the use of information and communication technology (ICT) and learners could be either present on the premises of an educational institution or in a remote location. Employed persons Persons aged 15 years and over in one of the following categories: (a) persons who during the reference week worked for at least one hour for pay, profit or gain; (b) persons who were not at work during the reference week but had a job or business from which they were temporarily absent. This definition is applicable to employees, self-employed persons and family workers. Pay includes cash payments or 'payment in kind' (payment in goods or services rather than money), irrespective of whether payment was received in the same week or not. Exceptions to the standard age group of 15 year olds and over are: 16 year olds and over in Spainand the United Kingdom; and 15 to 74 year olds in Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary and Latvia, (adapted from Eurostat). ET2020 The follow-up to the 'education and training 2010 work programme', the strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (later known as ET2020), was adopted by the Council in May 2009. It sets out four strategic objectives for education and training in the EU, namely: making lifelong learning and mobility a reality; improving the quality and efficiency of education and training; promoting equality, social cohesion and active citizenship; and enhancing creativity and innovation (including entrepreneurship) at all levels of education and training. The ET2020 strategy also sets a number of benchmarks to achieve by 2020. EU-LFS survey The European Union Labour Force Survey by Eurostat. Formal education The system in a country that imparts full-time education and training in an official and structured way from the primary up to tertiary and adult education. Formal education is organised by public or publicly recognised institutions, with clearly defined stages leading to formal qualifications which are recognised by national educational authorities. Further education Educational programmes that are aimed at people who have finished compulsory education. The level of these programmes is below that of a university degree. GDP The abbreviation for Gross Domestic Product, or the value of all the goods and services produced in a country in a given period. Informal education Learning that is intentional, but less organised and less structured than non-formal learning. It includes learning activities that occur in the family, in the workplace, and in the daily life of every person, on a self-directed, family-directed or socially-directed basis. Initial education Formal education, usually for young people, before they enter the labour market for the first time. NEET The indicator 'young people neither in employment nor in education and training', abbreviated as 'NEET', corresponds to the percentage of the population of a given age group and sex who is not employed and not involved in further education or training. The numerator of the indicator refers to persons meeting these two conditions: they are not employed (i.e. unemployed or inactive according to the International Labour Organization definition); they have not received any education or training in the four weeks preceding the survey. The denominator is the total population of the same age group and sex, excluding the respondents who have not answered the question on 'participation in regular education and training'. Non-formal education Education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned by an education provider as an addition, alternative and/or complement to formal education as part of lifelong learning. It is often provided to guarantee the right of access to education for all. It caters to people of all ages, but it may be short in duration and/or low-intensity. Non-formal education is typically provided in the form of short courses, workshops or seminars. It leads mostly to qualifications that are not recognised by the relevant national or sub-national education authorities or it could lead to no qualifications at all. Nevertheless, some specific non-formal education programmes can lead to, recognised qualifications especially when their aim is to fill in the gaps in a person's formal education. PISA The programme for international student assessment (PISA) is an international survey that takes place every three years and tests the skills of 15 year old students, to evaluate school systems. PISA ESCS index The PISA index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS) was created on the basis of the following variables: the International Socio-Economic Index of Occupational Status (ISEI); the highest level of education of the student’s parents, converted into years of schooling; the PISA index of family wealth; the PISA index of home educational resources; and the PISA index of possessions related to 'classical' culture in the family home. PPS Purchasing power standard is an artificial currency unit which uses the ability to buy the same given volume of goods and services in all countries as a reference. Resilience Students are classified as resilient if they are socio-economically disadvantaged in their own country (i.e. they fall in the bottom quarter of the PISA index of economic, social and cultural status in the country/economy of assessment) and they obtain top results compared to all the students who sat for the test that year, anywhere (i.e. performs in the top quarter of students among all countries/economies, after accounting for socio-economic status), (adapted from PISA/OECD). Steering documents Any official documents containing regulations, guidelines, and/or recommendations for educational institutions. Regulations are laws, rules or other orders prescribed by public authorities to govern educational settings. Recommendations or guidelines advocate particular procedures, methods or strategies without being mandatory. Steering documents include guidelines on any or all of the following: learning content, objectives and outcomes, attainment targets, pedagogical approaches, learning activities and assessment methods. Tertiary education Tertiary education builds on secondary education and provides learning activities in specialised fields, at a high level of complexity. It includes academic education as well as advanced vocational or professional education. It comprises International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) levels 5-8, ranging from short-cycle tertiary education to bachelor’s or equivalent, master’s or equivalent, and doctoral or equivalent level. Training The process of acquiring skills or types of behaviour necessary to carry out a particular job or activity. Underemployed persons Underemployed persons are people aged between 15-74 years who work part-time, who would like to work additional hours and are available to do so. Eurostat distinguishes this group from another group of people who have an insufficient income even though they work full-time. Unemployed persons Persons aged 15 to 74 years (16 to 74 years in Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) who: (1) were without work during the reference week; (2) are available to start work within two weeks or have found a job to start within the next three months; (3) actively sought employment at some time during the last four weeks. The employment rate is the number of unemployed people as a percentage of the labour force, (Eurostat). Vocational education and training Abbreviated as 'VET', sometimes simply called 'vocational training', it is the training in skills and teaching of knowledge related to a specific trade, occupation or vocation in which the student or employee wishes to participate. Vocational education may be undertaken at an educational institution, as part of secondary or tertiary education, or may be part of initial training during employment, for example as an apprentice, or as a combination of formal education and workplace learning (dual system). ISCED The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) is a statistical framework for organising information on education maintained by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). ISCED 0: Early Childhood Education Programmes at this level are typically designed with a holistic approach to support children's early cognitive, physical, social and emotional development. They introduce young children to organised instruction outside the family context. ISCED level 0 refers to early childhood programmes that have an intentional educational component. ISCED 1: Primary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to provide pupils with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics (i.e. literacy and numeracy) and establish a solid foundation for learning and understanding core areas of knowledge, personal and social development, in preparation for lower secondary education. Age is typically the only entry requirement at this level. The customary or legal age of entry is usually not below five years old nor above seven years old. This level typically lasts six years, although its duration can range between four and seven years. ISCED 2: Lower secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to build on the learning outcomes from ISCED level 1. Students enter ISCED level 2 typically between ages 10 and 13 (age 12 being the most common). ISCED 3: Upper secondary education Programmes at this level are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for tertiary education or provide skills relevant to employment, or both. Pupils enter this level typically between the ages of 14 and 16 years. ISCED 35: Upper secondary vocational education Programmes at this level have a vocational orientation and are typically designed to complete secondary education in preparation for further or tertiary education or employment. Pupils enter this level typically between ages 14 and 16 years. ISCED 4: Post-secondary non-tertiary education Post-secondary non-tertiary education provides learning experiences that build on secondary education and prepare for the labour market or admission to tertiary courses if ISCED level 3 qualifications are not sufficient. The completion of an ISCED level 3 programme is required to enter ISCED level 4 programmes. ISCED 45: Post-secondary non-tertiary vocational education Post-secondary non-tertiary vocational education provides learning experiences building on secondary education in preparation for the labour market. Very often they serve to broaden rather than deepen knowledge and can be provided by a variety of institutional settings. ISCED 5: Short-cycle tertiary education Programmes at this level are often designed to provide participants with professional knowledge, skills and competencies. Typically, they have a practical orientation, are occupation-specific and prepare students for the labour market. However, these programmes may also provide a pathway to other tertiary education programmes. Entry into ISCED level 5 programmes requires the successful completion of ISCED levels 3 or 4 with access to tertiary education. ISCED 6: Bachelors' or equivalent level Programmes at this level, are often designed to provide participants with intermediate academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a first degree or equivalent qualification. Entry into these programmes normally requires the successful completion of an ISCED level 3 or 4 programme with access to tertiary education. Entry may depend on subject choice and/or grades achieved at ISCED levels 3 and/or 4. Additionally, it may be required to take and succeed in entry examinations. Entry or transfer into ISCED level 6 is also sometimes possible after the successful completion of ISCED level 5. ISCED 7: Master's or equivalent level Programmes at this level, are often designed to provide participants with advanced academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a second degree or equivalent. Typically, programmes are theoretical but may include practical components. They offer access to state of the art research and/or best professional practice. These programmes are traditionally offered by universities and other tertiary educational institutions. Entry into ISCED level 7 programmes normally requires the successful completion of a bachelor's degree or another master's (ISCED level 6 or 7). In the case of long programmes that prepare for a first degree equivalent to a Master's degree, entry requires the successful completion of an ISCED level 3 or 4 programme with access to tertiary education. Entry into such programmes may depend on subject choice and/or grades achieved at ISCED levels 3 and/or 4. Additionally, it may be necessary to pass an entry examination. ISCED 8: Doctoral or equivalent level Programmes at this level are designed primarily to lead to an advanced research qualification. Programmes at this ISCED level are devoted to advanced study and original research and are typically offered only by research-oriented tertiary educational institutions such as universities. Doctoral programmes exist in both academic and professional fields. The theoretical duration of these programmes is three years full-time in most countries, although the actual time that students take to complete the programmes is typically longer. Programmes classified at ISCED level 8 may be referred to in many ways, for example: PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar terms. To compare these internationally, the term, 'doctoral or equivalent level' is used to label ISCED level 8. Country Codes AT: Austria LV: Latvia BE: Belgium CZ: Czech Republic BG: Bulgaria LT: Lithuania HR: Croatia LU: Luxembourg CY: Cyprus MT: Malta DK: Denmark NL: Netherlands EE: Estonia PL: Poland FI: Finland PT: Portugal FR: France RO: Romania DE: Germany SK: Slovakia EL: Greece SI: Slovenia HU: Hungary ES: Spain IE: Ireland SE: Sweden IT: Italy UK: United Kingdom EU-28: European Union BE-NL: Belgium - Flemish speaking community BE-FR: Belgium - French speaking community BE-DE: Belgium - German speaking community UK-EN: United Kingdom - England UK-NI: United Kingdom - North Ireland UK-SC: United Kingdom - Scotland UK-WL: United Kingdom - Wales SECTION EU-Actions

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